British vs American

British English and American English

British people and American people can always understand each other – but there are a few notable differences between British English and American English

Grammar

Americans use the present perfect tense less than speakers of British English and a British teacher might mark wrong some things that an American teacher would say are correct.

• US Did you do your homework yet?
• Brit. Have you done your homework yet?

• US I already ate.
• Brit. I’ve already eaten.

In British English, ‘have got’ is often used for the possessive sense of ‘have’ and ‘have got to’ is informally used for ‘have to’. This is much less common in American English.

• Brit. I’ve got two sisters.
• US I have two sisters.

• Brit. I’ve got to go now.
• US I have to go now.

There are a number of other minor grammatical differences.

Vocabulary

There are a lot of examples of different words being used in British and American English. Here are a few of the commonest.

• angry (Brit.) = mad (US)
• autumn = fall
• boot (of a car) = trunk
• chemist’s = drug store
• cupboard = closet
• flat = apartment
• lift = elevator
• nappy = diaper
• pavement = sidewalk
• petrol = gas/gasoline
• rubbish = trash
• tap = faucet
• trousers = pants

There are British words which many Americans will not understand and vice versa. There are also words which exist in both British and American English but have very different meanings.

Spelling

There are also a number of different spelling rules between British English and American English.

1 Some words that end in ‘-tre’ in British English end in ‘-ter’ in American English. 

• US theater, center
• Brit. theatre, centre

2 Some words that end in ‘-our’ in British English end in ‘-or’ in American English.

• US color, labor
• Brit. colour, labour

3 Some words are shorter in American English than in British English.

• US catalog, program
• Brit. catalogue, programme

There are other minor spelling differences between British and American English.

Counting Stars- One republic song

1 Lately, I've been, I've been losing sleep
2 Dreaming about the things that we could be
3 But baby, I've been, I've been praying hard,
4 Said, no more counting dollars
5 We'll be counting stars, yeah we'll be counting stars

6 I see this life like a swinging vine
7 Swing my heart across the line
8 And my face is flashing signs
9 Seek it out and you shall find
10 Old, but I'm not that old
11 Young, but I'm not that bold
12 I don't think the world is sold
13 I'm just doing what we're told
14 I feel something so right
15 Doing the wrong thing
16 I feel something so wrong
17 Doing the right thing
18 I could lie, couldn't I, could lie
19 Everything that kills me makes me feel alive

Losing	1	Verb
Dreaming	2	Noun
praying	3	Verb
counting	4	Verb
swinging	6	Adjective
Flashing	8	Verb
Doing	13	Verb
something	14	Noun
everything	19	noun

Definite Article "THE"

The definite article the is the most frequent word in English.

We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to.

• because there is only one:

The Pope is visiting Russia.
The moon is very bright tonight.
The Shah of Iran was deposed in 1979.

This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective:

He is the tallest boy in the class.
It is the oldest building in the town.

• because there is only one in that place or in those surroundings:

We live in a small village next to the church.	=	(the church in our village)
Dad, can I borrow the car?	=	(the car that belongs to our family)
When we stayed at my grandmother’s house we went to the beach every day.	=	(the beach near my grandmother’s house)
Look at the boy in the blue shirt over there.	=	(the boy I am pointing at)

• because we have already mentioned it:

A woman who fell 10 metres from High Peak was lifted to safety by a helicopter. The woman fell while climbing.
The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on High Peak. In January last year two men walking on the peakwere killed in a fall. 

We also use the definite article:

• to say something about all the things referred to by a noun:

The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals)
The kangaroo is found only in Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia)
The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies)

We use the definite article in this way to talk about musical instruments:

Joe plays the piano really well.(= George can play any piano)
She is learning the guitar.(= She is learning to play any guitar)

• to refer to a system or service:

How long does it take on the train.
I heard it on the radio.
You should tell the police.

• With adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of people:

Life can be very hard for the poor.
I think the rich should pay more taxes.
She works for a group to help the disabled.

The definite article with names:

We do not normally use the definite article with names:

William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Paris is the capital of France.
Iran is in Asia.

But we do use the definite article with:

• countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic:

the United Kingdom; the kingdom of Nepal; the United States; the People’s Republic of China.

• countries which have plural nouns as their names:

the Netherlands; the Philippines

• geographical features, such as mountain ranges, groups of islands, rivers, seas, oceans and canals:

the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Atlantic; the Atlantic Ocean; the Amazon; the Panama Canal.

• newspapers:

The Times; The Washington Post

• well known buildings or works of art:

the Empire State Building; the Taj Mahal; the Mona Lisa; the Sunflowers

• organisations:

the United Nations; the Seamen’s Union

• hotels, pubs and restaurants*:

the Ritz; the Ritz Hotel; the King’s Head; the Déjà Vu

*Note: We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name of the owner, e.g.,Brown’s; Brown’s Hotel; Morel’s; Morel’s Restaurant, etc.

• families: the Obamas; the Jacksons

source:http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/determiners-and-quantifiers/definite-article

Order of adjectives

Order of adjectives

Sometimes we use more than one adjective in front of a noun:

He was a nice intelligent young man.
She had a small round black wooden box.

Opinion adjectives:

Some adjectives give a general opinion. We can use these adjectives to describe almost any noun:

good	bad	lovely	strange
beautiful	nice	brilliant	excellent
awful	important	wonderful	nasty

Some adjectives give a specific opinion. We only use these adjectives to describe particular kinds of noun:

Food: tasty; delicious
Furniture, buildings: comfortable; uncomfortable
People, animals: clever; intelligent; friendly

We usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion:

Nice tasty soup.
A nasty uncomfortable armchair
A lovely intelligent animal

Usually we put an adjective that gives an opinion in front of an adjective that is descriptive:

a nice red dress; a silly old man; those horrible yellow curtains

We often have two adjectives in front of a noun:

a handsome young man; a big black car; that horrible big dog

Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual:

a nice handsome young man;
a big black American car;
that horrible big fierce dog

It is very unusual to have more than three adjectives.

Adjectives usually come in this order:

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
General opinion	Specific opinion	Size	Shape	Age	Colour	Nationality	Material

We use some adjectives only after a link verb:

afraid	alive	alone	asleep
content	glad	ill	ready
sorry	sure	unable	well

Some of the commonest -ed adjectives are normally used only after a link verb:

annoyed;  finished;  bored; pleased; thrilled

We say:

Our teacher was ill.
My uncle was very glad when he heard the news.
The policeman seemed to be very annoyed

but we do not say:

We had an ill teacher.
When he heard the news he was a very glad uncle
He seemed to be a very annoyed policeman

A few adjectives are used only in front of a noun:

north south east west

northern southern eastern western

countless occasional lone

eventful indoor outdoor

We say:

He lives in the eastern district.
There were countless problems with the new machinery.

but we do not say:

The district he lives in is eastern
The problems with the new machinery were countless.

Source: http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/adjectives/order-adjectives

Adjectives -ING - ED

A lot of adjectives are made from verbs by adding -ing or -ed:

-ing adjectives:

The commonest -ing adjectives are:

amusing	shocking	surprising	frightening
interesting	disappointing	exciting	tiring
worrying	boring	terrifying	annoying

If you call something interesting you mean it interests you.
If you call something frightening you mean it frightens you.

I read a very interesting article in the newspaper today.
That Dracula film was absolutely terrifying.

-ed adjectives:

The commonest –ed adjectives are:

annoyed	bored	frightened	worried
tired	closed	excited	delighted
disappointed

If something annoys you, you can say you feel annoyed. If something interests you, you can say you are interested.

The children had nothing to do. They were bored.a

source: http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/adjectives/adjectives-ed-and-ing

Expository Text Structures

          EXPOSITORY TEXT STRUCTURES

The two basic types of texts are narrative and expository.  The main purpose of narrative text is to tell a story.  Narrative text has beginning, middle and end, characters, plot or conflict, and setting.  Usually, narrative texts are written from the authors imagination.   The main purpose of expository text is to inform or describe.  Authors who write expository texts research the topic to gain information.  The information is organized in a logical and interesting manner using various expository text structures.  The most common expository text structures include description, enumerative or listing, sequence, comparison and contrast, cause and effect and problem and solution.

• Descriptive:  This includes main idea and detail such as the following

     "..... in my walk I Killed a Buck Goat of this Countrey, about the hight of the Grown Deer, its body Shorter the Horns which is not very hard and forks 2/3 up one prong Short the other round & Sharp arched, and is imediately above its Eyes the Colour is a light gray with black behind its ears down its neck, and its face white round its neck, its Sides and rump round its tail which is Short & white: Verryactively made, has only a pair of hoofs to each foot, his brains on the back of his head, his Norstrals large, his eyes like a Sheep he is more like the Antilope or Gazella of Africa than any other Species of Goat."  Lewis and Clark As Naturalists

• Enumerative/listing:  This includes listing connected information, outlining a series of steps, or placing ideas in a hierarchy, such as the following:

 By early 1803 Lewis was in Philadelphia. He took crash courses in medicine, botany, zoology, and celestial observation. He studied maps and journals of traders and trappers who had already reached as far up the Missouri River as the Mandan villages in North Dakota. By the time he left Washington he knew as much about the West, and what to do when he got there, as any man in America.  Lewis and Clark:  Preparations

Lewis and Clark, Andrew Santella

As they continued on the Missouri, the explorers came to a part of the river that was flanked by 300 foot (91 - m) high bluffs.  The bluffs were sculpted by wind, rain, and snow into wonderful shapes.  Farther down the river ..... Page 32 - 33

• Sequence: This includes a series of events leading up to a conclusion, or the sequence of occurrences related to a particular happening.  Note that the events can be separated in years as in a historical time line; or in a series of actions taking only a few seconds, hours, days.  Such is the example below.  Both enumerative and sequential text organization is basic to completing a set of directions to perform a task either in a laboratory of work setting.

January 18, 1803 - In secret communication to Congress, Jefferson seeks authorization for expedition – first official exploration of unknown spaces undertaken by United States government. Appropriation of $2,500 requested. (Final cost will be $38,000.)

Spring - Lewis, now picked as commander, is sent to Philadelphia for instruction in botany, zoology, celestial navigation, medicine from nation’s leading scientists. Also begins buying supplies to outfit the expedition. Lewis writes to former army comrade, William Clark, inviting him to share command of expedition. Clark writes to accept. 

July 4 - News of Louisiana Purchase announced. For $15 million, Jefferson more than doubles the size of United States: 820,000 square miles for 3 cents an acre. The next day, Lewis leavesWashington.  Timeline of the Trip

Plants on the Trail with Lewis and Clark, Dorothy Hinshaw Patent

The quality of Lewis's surviving plant specimens is amazing, considering their age and the difficult conditions on the trail.   Preparing and preserving plants is a time-consuming and demanding process.  A specimen has to be spread out properly, then  pressed between two sheets of blotting paper.  The paper soaks up the moisture from the specimen, drying it out.  The specimen  must be removed, aired, and placed between fresh sheets until it is completely dry, so it won't rot.  There were times when   Lewis had to deal with a large number of plants all at once.  While he stayed with the Nez Prece Indians, for example, he had  between thirty and fifty specimens to tend to every day. Page 22-23.

• Comparison/Contrast: This involves describing how two or more events, places, characters, or other ideas are similar and .or different in several ways.  Comparing several habitats or eco-systems is one example of this type.

In temperament Lewis and Clark were opposites. Lewis was introverted, melancholic, and moody; Clark, extroverted, even-tempered and gregarious. The better educated and more refined Lewis, who possessed a philosophical, romantic and speculative mind, was at home with abstract ideas; Clark, of a pragmatic mold, was more of a practical man of action. Each supplied vital qualities which balanced their partnership.  Biography of Lewis and Clark  

Animals on the Train with Lewis and Clark, Dorothy Hinshaw Patent    

Lewis hadn't known that western mountains were so different from those in the East.  Back there, mountains weren't so  steep and rugged, and they consisted of just a single range.  Western mountains went on and on, range after range.  Page 68 

• Cause/Effect:  This may involve several reasons why an event occurred, or several effects from on cause, and of course, as single cause/effects situation.

Captain Clarke and some of our men in a periogue went ashore with them; but the Indians did not seem disposed to permit  their return They said they were poor and wished to keep the periogue with them. Captain Clarke insisted on coming to the boat; but they refused to let him, and said they had soldiers as well as he had. He told them his soldiers were good, and that he  had more medicine on board his boat than would kill twenty such nations in one day. After this they did not threaten any more,  and said they only wanted us to stop at their lodge, that the women and children might see the boat.  The Journals:  September 25, 1804, Patrick Gass

Lewis and Clark, Andrew Santella

Lewis and Clark knew from the Shoshone that their trail would take them over some of the roughest terrain in the Rockies.  By August 26, temperatures had fallen to the freezing mark.  Fallen timber blocked their trail.  The party scrambled up steep slopes and down deep gorges.  When they reached a high vantage point, they could see nothing but more snow-covered mountains in everydirection.  Food supplies dwindled......Page 36 - 38

• Problem and Solution:  Authors use this technique to identify the problem, give possible solutions with possible results and finally, the solution that was chosen. 

On June second they arrived at a major fork in the river, in north-central Montana, an estimated 465 river miles upstream from the mouth of the Yellowstone. It shouldn't have been there. No Indian informant had mentioned it. There was not even a hint of it from anybody. Yet it posed the most significant geographical question of the entire Expedition. Which of these rivers was theMissouri?  The issue was fraught with danger. They needed to reach the Rockies, find the Shoshoni Indians, get some horses, portage to the head of the Columbia, and reach the Pacific before winter closed in.  To choose the wrong route would consume twice the time it would take to correct the mistake, and would, Lewis declared, not only lose them the whole of the present travel season, but "would probably so dishearten the party that it might defeat the expedition altogether."   Decision at the Marias 

The Truth about Sacajawea, Keneth Thomasma

If he is unable to secure horses and a guide, Captain Lewis knows he may have to turn back.  Page 54 - 60

Sources:

http://www.homepages.dsu.edu/venekaml/Lewis%20and%20Clark/EXPOSITORY%20TEXT%20STRUCTURES.htm

http://www.campusschool.dsu.edu/lofti/primary.htm

Follow in the Footsteps of Lewis and Clark http://www.sierraclub.org/lewisandclark/